Advances in Martian Geology: A Comprehensive Review of Lithology, Stratigraphy, and Surface Processes from Rover and Orbiter Data.

The exploration of Mars has yielded transformative insights into the planet’s geological evolution, driven by high-resolution datasets from rover missions and orbital observations. This comprehensive review synthesizes findings up to 2018, focusing on three fundamental aspects of Martian geology: lithology, stratigraphy, and surface processes. Lithological analyses, derived from rover-based spectroscopy (e.g., Curiosity’s ChemCam, Opportunity’s APXS) and orbital remote sensing (e.g., CRISM, THEMIS), reveal a diverse crustal composition dominated by basaltic rocks, with localized occurrences of silica-rich and hydrated mineralogies indicative of past aqueous alteration. Sedimentary lithologies, including cross-bedded sandstones and mudstones in Gale Crater, provide compelling evidence for fluvial-lacustrine environments in Mars’ early history (Noachian-Hesperian). Stratigraphic reconstructions, supported by HiRISE and CTX imagery, demonstrate a complex depositional and erosional history, with regional unconformities and cyclic sedimentation patterns suggesting dynamic climatic shifts. The recognition of globally distributed layered sulfate deposits and phyllosilicate-bearing units underscores the role of water-rock interactions in shaping Martian stratigraphy. Surface process investigations highlight the interplay of aeolian, fluvial, impact, and periglacial mechanisms. Orbiter-derived topographic data (MOLA, HRSC) and rover observations document extensive dune migration, inverted channels, and patterned ground, reflecting both ancient and ongoing geomorphic activity. Additionally, recurring slope lineae (RSL) and transient brine-related features suggest limited but active aqueous processes in the current hyperarid climate. Collectively, these findings constrain Mars’ paleoenvironmental evolution, emphasizing episodic liquid water stability and a transition to a dominantly cold, dry regime by the Amazonian. However, key knowledge gaps persist, including the precise timing of habitability windows and the extent of subsurface aqueous reservoirs. Future missions integrating in situ petrochronology and deep subsurface exploration will be critical to advancing these frontiers.